The Eight Communities

Riverine communities:
Location	Community
Upper Ucayali River	Cunchuri (Mestizo)
Upper Ucayali River	Puerto Belén (Shipibo)
Upper Ucayali River	Caco Macaya (Shipibo)
Aguaytía River	Santa Rosa (Shipibo)
Aguaytía River	Naranjal (Cocama)
Upland communities:
Road Neshuya-Curimaná	Palmeros (Mestizo)
CampoVerde-Road F. Basadre Km 80	Ganaderos (Mestizo)
Road F.Basadre Km 38, int 4 km.	Hierbas Buenas (Mestizo)

SELECTION CRITERIA

Site selection was a critical step in the research cycle. From a methodology perspective, it was important to include sites that would allow us to differentiate factors affecting health in the two ecosystems. The region of Ucayali is located within the selva baja or Amazon lowlands. There are two distinct ecosystems; the floodplain and the uplands. In addition to these ecological differences, there are several socio-economic and cultural variables that have vary across the region and have differing impacts on health. In order to capture this heterogeneity, we developed the following list of selection criteria.

Ecosystem type

The most obvious ecological differences exist between the fertile floodplain (or varzea) and the highly weathered soils of the upland forests. The type of agriculture as well as the production cycles vary between these areas. The fertile river banks and low lying forests, available for cultivation during only the dry months, provide farmers on the floodplain with a brief window of opportunity before the rains begin and the rivers flood their banks. If however, farmers own land on higher ground, they clear land during the dry months and plant with the beginning of the rainy season. They are therefore able to exploit two growing seasons. In the uplands, farmers have only one season, clearing and burning fallows and forests in the dry period and planting their crops at the start of the wet season, in September/October.

There exist however, more subtle differences within these two ecosystems. In the floodplain, areas that are flooded annually versus those that are flooded only during years of high rainfall (usually every 5-7 years) vary in soil type and suitability for different agricultural crops. Similarly there are pockets of fertile areas found within the uplands forests.

We selected five riverine and three upland communities. Within the riverine group, three of the five are inundated annually. In the upland communities, two are located on more acidic poorer soils, with the third in an area dominated by more fertile sandy soils.

Ethnicity

The two distinct cultural groups include the indigenous people and the mestizos or colonists who have immigrated from different parts of country in search of land and opportunity. Within the indigenous population, there are three main tribes; Canibo-Shipibo, Ashaninka and Cocama. We have included in the project Shipibo and Cocama communities.

We have encountered a mix of cultures from the coast, Andes and upper Amazon lowlands in our mestizo communities. The majority of past international research activities have focused on mestizo communities, where cultural and language barriers do not exist. Because of this the indigenous population has become increasingly marginalized and mistrusting of outsiders

Access to and involvement in the market economy

The ability of communities to participate in the market economy is determined largely by access, either by river or road. Access can be measured in relative terms, ie. the number of hours to reach Pucallpa (the main market in Ucayali) and in absolute terms, ie. whether they can reach there at all. Riverine communities are always able to transport goods to and from market. In contrast, some road communities have no access for long periods in the rainy season. In our sample we have road communities with all-year access and others where access is only during the dry months.

Time of settlement

Indigenous populations are thought to have been in the Amazon for several thousands of years. The age of mestizo settlements varies from eight to eighty years, and is associated with the waves of colonization from the coast and sierra. These different settlements can be categorized according to whether they are old versus new frontier, each characterized by a different set of socio-econmic variables. Old frontier areas have basic infrastructure such as schools, clinics, roads as well as greater land security. Newer areas, are richer in resources but the opportunity costs of living on the new frontier, without governance nor government servies, are greater. Our sites vary in age from ten to eighty years. Slash-and-Burn Farming

Land use strategies

There are diverse and often multiple land use strategies in Ucayali. Agricultural activities include slash and burn agriculture with a variety of annual and perennial crops, and cattle ranching and pastures, and oil palm plantations. The staple crops include plantain, rice, cassava and maize (primarily for animal consumption). Perennial crops include pineapple, citrus fruits and papaya. Fishing provides the main source of protein and is often supplemented with wild animals hunted in the surrounding forests. Extraction of timber, fruits, and other materials may be both for commercial and subsistence use. We have includes sites that differ in their diversity of land use activities as well as in terms of their dominant strategy.

Based on these five criteria we selected eight communities. The following table provides an overall description of each site with respect to the above criteria.

Cunchuri Puerto Belén

Riverine community situated on Ucayali River with annual flooding.

Mestizo

Eight hours by boat from Pucallpa; Access all year round.

Slash and burn agriculture, principal crops are plantain and rice; Fishing during dry season; Little hunting.

Settled in 1750?

Government in process of granting land deeds

Riverine community situated on arm of Ucayali River recently cut off from the main river. Annual flooding, however this will be less often with the change in river’s course.

Indigenous Shipibo

12 hours by boat to Pucallpa; Access all year round.

Slash and burn agriculture, principal crop is plantain; Fishing all year round; Some hunting

Settled in 1948.

Community land deed that encompasses a large area surrounding the settled land.

Caco Macaya Naranjal

Riverine community situated in small stream 200m from the Caco River.

Indigenous Shipibo.

18 hours by boat to Pucallpa; In dry months (Aug-Oct) access is difficult as stream is dry.

Slash and burn agriculture, principal crop is plantain and cassava; Fishing all year round; Much hunting.

Settled in 1974.

Community land deed that encompasses a large area surrounding the settled land

Riverine community situated on the Aguaytía River. Annual and unpredictable flooding

Mestizo, however with indigenous roots, Cocama tribe

6 hours to Nueva Requena (small port) and 1.5 hours to Pucallpa on secondary road. Very heavy rain can restrict access from Nueva Requena to Pucallpa

Slash and Burn agriculture. Plantain is the main crop. There is fishing in the dry season. Little hunting due to deforestation and logging

Settled in 1935

Community land deed that encompasses a large area surrounding the settled land

Santa Rosa Palmeros

Riverine community on the Aguaytía. Part of the community is flooded annually

Indigenous Shipibo

4 hours to town of Aguaytia and then 5 hours to Pucallpa

Slash and Burn agriculture. Plantain is the main crop. Hunting and fishing are important activities

Settled in 1950

Community land deed that encompasses a large area surrounding the settled land

Upland area with relatively infertile soils

Mestizo 2 hours to Pucallpa, however no access during the wet season (4 months)

Oil palm plantations and pastures. Fishing by women in small streams. Little hunting

Settled b/w 1983-1999

Individual farmers have and titles

Hierbas Buenas Ganaderos

Upland are with sandy more fertile soils

Mestizo

1 hour to Pucallpa. Access all year round

Slash and burn agriculture. Main crop includes pineapple, citrus fruits. No fishing or hunting

Settled in 1981

Government in process of granting land deeds

Upland area with relatively infertile soils

Mestizo

1-3 hours to Pucallpa. Access all year round

Cattle and pastures. No fishing or hunting

Settled b/w 1975-1990

The majority do not have land titles

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Cunchuri	Puerto Belén
Riverine community situated on Ucayali River with annual flooding. Mestizo Eight hours by boat from Pucallpa; Access all year round. Slash and burn agriculture, principal crops are plantain and rice; Fishing during dry season; Little hunting. Settled in 1750? Government in process of granting land deeds	Riverine community situated on arm of Ucayali River recently cut off from the main river. Annual flooding, however this will be less often with the change in river’s course. Indigenous Shipibo 12 hours by boat to Pucallpa; Access all year round. Slash and burn agriculture, principal crop is plantain; Fishing all year round; Some hunting Settled in 1948. Community land deed that encompasses a large area surrounding the settled land.
Caco Macaya	Naranjal
Riverine community situated in small stream 200m from the Caco River. Indigenous Shipibo. 18 hours by boat to Pucallpa; In dry months (Aug-Oct) access is difficult as stream is dry. Slash and burn agriculture, principal crop is plantain and cassava; Fishing all year round; Much hunting. Settled in 1974. Community land deed that encompasses a large area surrounding the settled land	Riverine community situated on the Aguaytía River. Annual and unpredictable flooding Mestizo, however with indigenous roots, Cocama tribe 6 hours to Nueva Requena (small port) and 1.5 hours to Pucallpa on secondary road. Very heavy rain can restrict access from Nueva Requena to Pucallpa Slash and Burn agriculture. Plantain is the main crop. There is fishing in the dry season. Little hunting due to deforestation and logging Settled in 1935 Community land deed that encompasses a large area surrounding the settled land
Santa Rosa	Palmeros
Riverine community on the Aguaytía. Part of the community is flooded annually Indigenous Shipibo 4 hours to town of Aguaytia and then 5 hours to Pucallpa Slash and Burn agriculture. Plantain is the main crop. Hunting and fishing are important activities Settled in 1950 Community land deed that encompasses a large area surrounding the settled land	Upland area with relatively infertile soils Mestizo 2 hours to Pucallpa, however no access during the wet season (4 months) Oil palm plantations and pastures. Fishing by women in small streams. Little hunting Settled b/w 1983-1999 Individual farmers have and titles
Hierbas Buenas	Ganaderos
Upland are with sandy more fertile soils Mestizo 1 hour to Pucallpa. Access all year round Slash and burn agriculture. Main crop includes pineapple, citrus fruits. No fishing or hunting Settled in 1981 Government in process of granting land deeds	Upland area with relatively infertile soils Mestizo 1-3 hours to Pucallpa. Access all year round Cattle and pastures. No fishing or hunting Settled b/w 1975-1990 The majority do not have land titles

SEASONALITY AND TIMING OF RESEARCH

Average precipitation in Ucayali ranges between 2000-3000mm . Rains usually start in September/October, and continue until March/April. During this time, rivers and lakes rise up to 10 metres, dramatically changing the landscape. Agricultural production as well as the availability of fish, animals and foods gathered from the forests, are tied to this hydrological cycle. In order to capture the effects of seasonality on diet and disease, we selected three time periods: 1) June/July, 2) October/November and 3) February/March.

June and July is the dry season, when fish are plentiful and animals, fruits and seeds scarce. Farmers in the upland areas are preparing the land for the upcoming crops, taking advantage of the dry period, to slash and burn their fields. Farmers on the floodplain are planting their annual crops on the fertile riverbanks for the four-month window when the river is low. Plantain is planted on the “restingas” or levees above the anticipated high water line.
October/November marks the start of the wet season. Farmers in the floodplain have harvested their rice and beans and farmers in the uplands have recently planted their rice, cassava, maize and beans. Fish is still readily available.
In February/March, most of the floodplain communities are under water. Fish are scarce as they migrate to the flooded forests in search of food and reproductive habitats. Animals and forest foods more plentiful, but by this time, food security issues emerge as last year’s harvest has been exhausted. In the uplands, basic staples are available but fish prices rise considerably. Little other than plantain, cassava and rice are consumed.

The impacts of these seasonal cycles on health, nutrition and production activities are of greater importance to the communities, than issues associated with yield and price fluctuations. The annual risks of flooding, fire and lack of access linked to the hydrological cycle may destroy an entire crop or cut-off market access and therefore any hopes of sale.

With these three time periods, we can study the cycles in food availability, disease periodicity, and nutrient intake. This will allow us to not only identify critical periods when food is scarce and disease more prevalent, but also analyze the interaction between such cycles. We can then provide insight into which cycles are linked to others and how, and which may be the key drivers affecting others. Efforts can therefore be focused on such critical periods when their lives are most precarious and desperate and when intervention will have the greatest impact.

SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS

In six of the eight sites, all families within the community are involved in the project. Due to differences in village size, our sample ranges from 32 to 50 families. In the two communities where there were more than 50 families, we randomly selected a sample of 50, excluding those without children and professionals, for example teachers. Our focus on the link between natural resource use and health excludes those with a government salary.

Within the family, the mother and father (or main caregivers if they are not resident in the home) were selected as informants for the survey. Men are asked questions regarding their production systems, which included agriculture, fishing, logging, hunting, gathering and off-farm work. Essentially we are interested in how much they grow of different crops, what proportion is sold, eaten, stored, fed to animals or given away. These same basic questions are also asked of products harvested from the forest as well as hunting and fishing.

Dietary and health questions for both children and women are directed at the women. We identified four categories of children, i) 0-23 months; ii) 2-5 years, iii) 6-10 years and iv) 11-18 years. These were identified as critical age periods when a similar set of nutritional and health problems are associated. If there was more than one child in each category, one was selected randomly. Thus family size varied between three and six participants.

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PHOTOS (from top to bottom):
A Shipibo woman; Harvested plantains in a riverine community, babanas ready for transport and sale; Shipibo women dancing in Puerto Belén; A field prepared for crops by slashing and burning; A Palmeros family with oil palm in background.