In the Amazon lowlands, the annual flooding and extensive inundation of large areas of the floodplain challenges almost every aspect of human settlement. As the rivers rise, crops are drowned, transport is restricted to watercraft, fish disperse into the flooded forests and food procurement becomes more difficult. This combination of factors creates problems of seasonal food insecurity for many rural frontier families. In response to the risks imposed by the rivers, both native and colonist peoples have developed diverse resource use strategies to cope with both the predictable annual rise in the rivers and lakes and the greater, though more infrequent floods, that usually occur every seven to ten and 20-25 years. On such occasions land is often lost as rivers change course and whole communities are forced to relocate. Understanding how the local adaptive strategies of these frontier communities relate to, and are synchronized with, the rhythms of the rivers and the ever changing ecology configuration of the floodplain, provides insight into the determinants of food security, nutritional status and health.
Research on food security and risk has tended to focus on the more catastrophic effect of sudden floods that consume arable land and leave families without a source of food. However the impact of seasonal food insecurity may ultimately have a greater impact on nutritional status, particularly of young children, than these sporadic more destructive floods. This study focuses on the impact of these annual fluctuations in food availability on dietary quality. In the Amazon basin the hydrological cycle and the resulting from 8-12 metre change in river levels dictate migratory patterns of fish and wild animals, agricultural production cycles, and the seasonal availability of forest foods. During the times of low water, the commercially-important seed and fruit eating fish inhabitat the river channels and lakes, fasting, yet avoiding predators. Once rivers rise, these fish disperse into the flooded forest seeking food and the protective cover of the trees. This general pattern of fish migration results in periods of abundance, in the dry months, followed by scarcity, when the rains comes and fish are difficult to catch and expensive to purchase. As fish is the primary source of animal protein, their presence or absence plays a key role in the dietary quality of local communities across the seasons.
Animals exhibit similar migratory patterns. During the rainy season, they move into the floodplain to feed on the abundant supply of fruits, seeds and nuts available in the forests. This is a good time for hunting as the animals tend to concentrate on the higher ‘restingas’ or levees. Wild animals provide an alternate protein source when fish are less available. However, selective logging and slash-and-burn agriculture pose a serious threat to their habitat and ultimately to the food security of local communities.
During the rainy season, trees are laden with fruits, seeds and nuts. However flooding and lack of local knowledge of such wild foods restricts their important in local diets. The agricultural production cycles similarly follow the rise and fall of the rivers. During the dry season, as the river recedes, fertile alluvial banks are available for annual cropping, in particular rice, maize and plantain. Natural levees arc across the floodplain; the remnants of ancient river channels that have changed course. These areas provide valuable agricultural land that is inundated only during the larger, less frequent floods.
Disease and sanitary conditions are also affected by flooding. Rising water changes animal and insect habitats, affecting vector incidence, disease outbreak, and periodicity. At certain times of the year the increased prevalence of intestinal parasites exacerbates the poor nutritional status of already undernourished children. The combination of these factors creates a situation of annual, yet predictable food insecurity. If researchers and communities could better understand these ecological rhythms and their impact on nutrition and food security, development interventions could focus on ways to take advantage of the annual floods rather than being drowned economically by them (Goulding et al. 1996). The flooded forest, floating meadows and floodplain lakes team with animal and plant diversity. There is no reason why their sustainable management should not be able to provide a plentiful and nutritious diet all year round.
Although subsistence activities directly affect nutrition and food security of the household, increases in income generation are not necessarily equated with improved nutritional levels. The perception a decade ago was that the most effective means of reducing malnutrition was the general process of development, with it concomitant income increases (World Bank, 1980). However the current consensus view is that calorie consumption is much less responsive to income increases than originally thought (Behrman and Deolalikar, 1987; Behrman, 1995). Increases in production and income that result from improved technologies and agricultural intensification may, but do not necessarily, lead to changes in health and nutritional status (von Braun et al., 1994). In fact several recent studies have shown decreased nutrition levels associated with cash-cropping even though income levels rose (Kinsey, 1998; Nowak, 1998; Akanji, 1998).
The link between different land use systems and human health in poorer
areas has become globally more apparent with the push for increased productivity,
the narrowing of the crop base and the introduction of commercial monocultures
(FAO 1993). Pesticides and other practices that erode the natural
resource base directly impact human health, and long-term health is effected
by changes in the nutritional quality of staple foods and the reduction
of diversity of products consumed (CIIFAD 1996). Displacing diverse
traditional cropping systems with major staple crops has resulted in micronutrient
malnutrition, a term used to describe the deficiency of vitamins and trace
elements (Calloway 1995). Despite overall increases in the quantity of
food per person, deficiencies in iodine, vitamin A and iron are prevalent
on a global scale (McGuire 1993). Referred to as “hidden hunger”
such micronutrient deficiencies lead both to increased mortality and morbidity
and to impaired cognitive learning and development (Levin et al. 1991,
Micronutrient Initiative 1997). Evidence from Ucayali similarly suggests
that quality, not quantity, of food is the main issue of concern (Regional
Ministry of Health and CNF, personal communication). Low rates of
acute malnutrition as opposed to high levels of chronic malnutrition recorded
in health surveys further support this claim. However, the current
and future impact of the absence of such critical nutrients on physical
health and cognitive development of the people of Ucayali has yet to be
explored. Knowing whether nutrition and earning levels are related
has important implications for agricultural and technology development
for this frontier region.